The Turkish invasion in India and the earlier Arab invasion marked turning points in Indian history. These invasions were driven by the quest for wealth, territorial expansion, and the spread of faith. They not only altered political control but also brought new cultural and religious influences into the subcontinent. Understanding the Arab and Turkish invasion in India is important because it shaped medieval Indian society and laid the foundation for future Muslim rule, making it a key topic in UPSC preparation.
Central Asia and Northern India witnessed many changes from 1000-1000 CE. Mahmud Ghaznavi was the first Turkish ruler to invade India in parts which were dominated by Rajputs. He did not want to rule India but expand his kingdom in Iran, Afghanistan and Khorasan. His major aim to invade India was rather the wealth which India possessed. Every time he invaded and returned with a vast amount of wealth collected from Indian Temples and rulers.
Of the various invasions made by Arabs and Turks two of the most notable are
- The invasion of Sindh led by Arab Mohammed bin Qasim in 712 CE can be considered a landmark in history as it gave dominance to Muslim rule in the Indian Subcontinent.
- Turkish Invasion by Muhammed Ghuri which led to the Battle of Tarain in 1191 and 1192 and led to the setting up of the first Muslim rule in India
Arabs and Turkish invasion is an important topic as it changed the course of history and thus it forms an integral part of the UPSC syllabus of GS paper 1 mains.
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Arab Conquest of Sind and Multan
The Arab Conquest of Sind and Multan started in 711 CE with the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim. He was sent by Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the Umayyad Caliphate's governor, to conquer the area. It was the first victorious Islamic mission in India, resulting in changes in culture and religion over time. Sind and Multan were rich, strategically located, and politically weak, making them ideal targets. This conquest created lasting Indo-Arab ties.
Background and Causes
- The Arabs had tried to invade Sind before but failed.
- Pirate attacks on Arab ships triggered the final assault.
- Umayyad rulers wanted to expand trade and spread Islam.
- Raja Dahir, the Hindu ruler, lacked strong alliances and internal support.
Military Campaign of Muhammad bin Qasim
- Debal (711 CE) was the first significant victory.
- Battles at Nirun, Sehwan, and Brahmanabad followed.
- Raja Dahir was killed near Rawar.
- Multan, known for its Sun Temple, was captured and looted.
- The use of siege weapons, such as giant catapults, ensured victory.
Administration and Governance
- Non-Muslims were allowed religious freedom if they paid jizya.
- Locals were included in governance.
- Arabic and Islamic practices were introduced,t with some local accommodations.
Impact of the Conquest
Religious:
- Islam spread in northwest India.
- Mosques and Islamic centers were built.
Cultural:
- Arabic and Persian influenced language and architecture.
- Indo-Islamic culture started forming.
Economic:
- Trade routes expanded.
- Sind joined the Islamic world economy.
Political:
- Future invasions followed this path.
- Weakening of native kingdoms in the region.
Decline of Arab Rule
- Qasim was recalled and died in prison due to political betrayal.
- Arab hold weakened, but Islam stayed.
- Local rulers regained partial control.
- Later dynasties, such as the Abbasids, continued to exercise nominal rule.
Legacy of the Invasion
- First Islamic rule in India.
- Lasting religious and cultural influence.
- Set the stage for rulers like Ghazni and Ghor to invade later.Arab Invasion in India
The Arab invasion in India began with the conquest of Sindh under Mohammed Bin Qasim, marking the entry of Islamic rule in the subcontinent. This event is considered the starting point of the Arabs and Turks invasion in India. It introduced new political, cultural, and religious influences that shaped the course of medieval Indian history. Understanding the Arab invasion is important as it laid the foundation for later Turkish invasions and the rise of Muslim rule in India.
Mohammed Bin Qasim
Mohammed Bin Qasim who was a general of Umayyad khalifa was borne in Taif Saudi Arabia. After the death of the last Hindu emperor Harshvardhana, there was political instability in India. Qasim took this opportunity as India was a prosperous State.
Sindh was ruled by Dahir, Son of Cach who also had usurped power from previous Buddhist rulers.
The battle fought by Mohammed Bin Qasim
- Fall of Debal- Dehar is a famous seaport. It was captured and a large amount of booty and women went into the hands of Arabs
- Fall of Nirun- Nirun was under the charge of Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh. With the approach of Qasim, Jai Sindh fled and Nirun was Captured without any fight
- Fall of Sehwan – Cousin of Dahir, Bajhra was in charge of Sehwan. Bajhra could not face the attacks of Arab and fled.
- Fall of Sisam and Victory over Jats- It was ruled by Kaka a Jat king. He gave shelter to Bajhra after he fled from Sehwan. Qasim defeated jats and Bajhra and their followers were killed.
- Battle of Rewar- Fought between Mohammed bin Qasim and Dahir Ruler of Sindh. Dahir died in the battle and Qasim got the rule of Multan and Sindh. Soon capitals of other provinces such as Brahmanabad, and Alor were also captured.
Army Capacity
Qasim had a boisterous militia consisting
- 250000 troops with 600 Camels
- 6000 Syrian Horses
- 3000 Bactrian Donkeys
- An artillery force containing 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults
End of Qasim
Qasim died due to a family feud. In 714 CE Hajaj Governor of Iraq died and Mohammed Bin Qasim was recalled and executed.
Read about the Battle of Plassey here!
Administrative Policies of Arab invaders
Arab administrative policies show they were lenient and adaptable. Local practices were allowed unhindered even after a particular area was conquered.
- Caliph Umar who is considered one of the main architects of the Arab administration prohibited interference of Arabs in local administration. It was primarily in the hands of local chiefs majority of which were non-Muslims.
- Their leniency and liberty in administration can be shown by Brahmanabad Settlement which was made by Qasim after his victory over Dahar. Under it, Hindus were treated as “people of the book” or “zimmis” (the protected ones).
- Zimmis agreed to pay taxes to Caliph, Caliph in turn protected them and allowed them to follow their Faith and worship their god.
- Arab rulers and administrators were forbidden from usurping local’s property which was declared vide a proclamation.
- Qasim had a tolerant policy towards Brahmins and native traditions.
- Jizya was a kind of tax imposed on Non-muslims.
- Sindh and Multan were divided into several Iqtas or districts and were ruled by Arab military officers.
Effects of Arab Invasion
- The fall of Sindh made way for Islam in the Indian Subcontinent.
- Art of administration, music, astronomy, painting and architecture was taken from the Indian subcontinent to Europe through Arabs.
- It also helped Turks in achieving success in India.
- Arabs took expert guidance from Indian Craftsmen which helped them build several mosques.
- Charak Samhita, a medical journal, was translated into Arabic during this period.
- With the commencement of new religion in India people of the oppressed lower class embraced Islam. It was of great point of view from both cultural and political aspects.
- Arabs had tolerance and did not interfere with the social systems. As inferred from Chachnama Qasim did not interfere with the caste system and upheld the Indian social tradition.
- Two weapons that came with the Arabs were Naptha or Greek fire and Manjaniq or mangonel/trebuchet. Indian forces were not as good as those of the Invaders and thus faces defeats.
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Turkish Invasions in India
Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded India almost 17 times between 1000-1025 AD. The influence of Arabs was restricted to a small part of the Indian Subcontinent whereas the Turks were able to get a foothold inside the Subcontinent and establish a full-fledged state centuries later.
The Turkish Invasion took place in two phases where during the first phase they mainly aimed at plundering and looting the wealth to enrich the Ghaznavid dynasty and not to spread of Islam or any establish any kingdom in India.
Period of Invasion
Turkish rule started in 1000 AD and continued till Khalji Dynasty. Alauddin Khalji was the last known Turkish ruler in India. This was the preparatory phase for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
Subuktagin (977 to 998)
Subuktagin was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He was the father of Mahmud Ghazni. Battle of Peshawar 1001 between the Ghaznavid army of sultan Mahmoud Bin Subuktagin and the Hindu Shahi army of Jaypala. A humiliation treaty was signed between Jaypala and Subuktagin due to the loss of Jaypala. This was the first major battle of the Ghaznavid expansion in the Indian subcontinent. Subuktagin conquered a large territory in Central Persia.
Mahmud of Ghazni’s (971 to 1030) invasion
Ghaznavi was the first ruler to attack the Rajput kingdom in India. He had a vision of establishing supremacy over Muslim rulers. He had hundreds of Hindu soldiers in his army including his commander named Tilak.
About Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni (Nov. 2, 971–April 30, 1030). He was the first ruler to be given the title of Sultan. His father was Abu Mansur Sabuktegin and had two younger brothers; the second one, Ismail, was born to Sabuktegin’s principal wife. On his deathbed, Subuktgein handed over the powers to his younger son Ismail.
Mahmud challenged his younger brother, seized his throne and put him to house arrest. The new Sultan then ruled till his death in 1030.
Read about the Mughal Empire here!
Battles and Outcomes during Arabs and Turks Invasion
Let us look at some important Battles Fought by Ghazni
| Year | Battle | Leader | Opponent | Winner |
| 1001 | Battle of Peshawar | Mahmud of Ghazni | Jayapala | Ghaznavids |
| 1005-6 | Siege Of Multan | Mahmud of Ghazni | Fateh Daud | Ghaznavids |
| 1008 | Battle of Balkh | Mahmud of Ghazni | Ahmad Arslan Qara Khan | Ghaznavids |
| 1009 | Battle of Chach | Mahmud of Ghazni | Anandpala | Ghaznavids |
| 1027 | Battle of the Indus River | Mahmud of Ghazni | Jats | Ghaznavids |
Army Capacity
The army used to be recruited by far away states in adolescence. They used to form the minds of adolescents and grow their bodies, so that they could fight.
Mahmud, in his invasion took more than 50000 slaves.
End of Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni died on 30th April 1030 at the age of 58 due to Malaria and Tuberculosis.
Muhammad of Ghori’s (1149 – 1206) invasion
Let us understand Muhammed Ghori’s invasion in Detail
Period of Invasion
1149-1206 AD
About Muhammad Ghori
Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori was the first Turkish ruler who had the intention of establishing his kingdom in India. He first occupied Multan in Punjab. While trying to occupy Gujarat he was given tough competition by Bhima of the Chalukya dynasty and was thus unable to occupy it, rather he barely managed to survive.
During the same time, Prithviraj Chauhan of the Chauhan dynasty was also trying to expand their kingdom. Prithviraj facing defeat by Bhim of the Chalukya dynasty in Gujarat wanted to expand to Punjab where the fates of both rulers met.
Battles and outcomes
Let us look at some important battles fought by Muhammad Ghori
| Year | Battle | Opponent | Outcome |
| 1191 | First Battle of Tarain | Prithviraj Chauhan | Ghori lost |
| 1192 | Second Battle of Tarain | Prithiviraj Chauhan | Ghori won |
| 1194 | Battle of Chandwar | Jaychandra of Kannauj | Ghori Won |
Read about important wars and battles in Indian history
Army Capacity
It was estimated that the army consisted of 15000 cavalry, 10000 infantry and thousands of rearguards.
End of Ghori
Ghori was assassinated on 15th March 1205. The name of his assassin remains unknown
Administration Policies of Turkish Invaders
The Turks governed the vast Indian subcontinent for around 800 years. Members of the Turkish dynasty were good rulers and had the abilities of good administrators.
- The most important distinction between Turks and earlier rulers was the policy of centralization and decentralization of administration.
- The empire was divided into several provinces which were governed by Governors and councils of ministers. They also had a standing army which was controlled by a specific committee.
- The accounts of the Judicial system and tribunals are meagre and a clear picture could not be formed of the Judicial system during the Turks.
- Balban tries to unite the empire instead of just extending his boundaries. They realised consolidation is the only way to rule a vast territory like the Indian subcontinent. Feroz Shah established many royal karkhanas or factories in which thousands of slaves were employed. During his rule 300 new towns were also built.
Effects of Turkish Invaders
- It led to the establishment of Muslim rule over India. Many temples of Gods and Goddesses were destroyed.
- India’s trade with Central and west Asian countries increased thus leading to the increasing wealth of the nation.
- Several new preachers emerged who were called Sufi.
- The artisans from Italy and Iraq brought new methods of construction which were adopted by Indian artisans.
- The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built during the lifetime of Muhammad. in Kodungallur, in the district of Thrissur, Kerala.
- Turkish rulers adopted and welcomed Hindus and other unbelievers who wanted to embrace Islam. Indian people who wished to convert to Islam had to simply enter the sultan’s palace and make the two testimonies and the sultan would bestow upon them and give them a golden necklace. Turkish rulers pursued this procedure to encourage Hindus to accept Islam.
- Firoz Shah, one of the greatest sultans of Delhi, exempted everyone who converted to Islam from tax (jizya)
- According to a new study, the origins of some Indian languages can be traced back to “Anatolia” (largely in Turkey). These languages include Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Kashmiri, Oriya, Marwari, Bhojpuri and Urdu.
- The architecture in the Indian subcontinent flourished under Turkish domination. Forts were simple but sturdy, arches above the doorways and windows were seen instead of the beams which were used by Indians before the arrival of the Muslims. They also used tall and well-made towers or minarets in their buildings, and pillars were used for their support.
- The sultans also founded towns such as Agra, Fatehabad, Hissar Firoza (UP), and Jaunpur.
The Turks governed the Indian subcontinent which was a large area. Consolidation was one of the best administrative policies that helped them. They adopted an administrative system which helped them to control such a vast area as the Indian subcontinent. The Turks in India also contributed to the promotion of Indian civilisation and Islamic civilisation as a whole.
The period from 700 to 1000 saw a lot of changes in the Indian dynamics with the defeat of great Indian rulers like Prithviraj Chatham Indian subcontinent saw the rise of Muslim rule. Rulers like Muhammad of Ghaznavi were not much strict in their policies whereas Muhammad plundered Indian temples and destroyed the images of gods and guesses. These invaders led to the establishment of further dynasties like the Slave, and Khalji and ultimately to the rise of Mughal rule in India.
Read about the Mauryan Empire here!
UPSC Previous Year Questions Arabs and Turks Invasion
Prelims Q. Who was the first Muslim invader of India? (UPSC 2008) (a) Muhammad bin Qasim (b) Mahmud of Ghazni (c) Muhammad Ghori (d) Babur Answer: (a) Muhammad bin Qasim (712 CE – Arab invasion of Sindh) Q. The Arab conquest of Sindh took place in (UPSC 2002) (a) 712 A.D. (b) 740 A.D. (c) 1001 A.D. (d) 1009 A.D. Answer: (a) 712 A.D. Q. Who among the following was the first to invade India? (UPSC 1999) (a) Xerxes (b) Alexander (c) Mahmud of Ghazni (d) Changez Khan Answer: (a) Xerxes Mains Q. “Turkish conquest of North India owed more to the weakness of Indian kingdoms than to the strength of Turkish armies.” Comment. (15 marks) (UPSC 2020) Q. “The Battle of Tarain 1192 laid the foundations of Turkish rule in North India.” Critically examine. (15 marks) (UPSC 2016) High-Yield Facts Asked Repeatedly
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